Research

Peer-reviewed Publications

• Nagao, Haruka, Rigao Liu, William Hatungimana, Leeann Youn, and John James Kennedy. “Vaccine diplomacy: The politics of Covid-19 vaccines and Public Opinion in Zimbabwe”, International Political Science Review, 0(0).
  • Keywords: Zimbabwe, COVID-19 vaccine, vaccine diplomacy, vaccination intention, vaccine origin
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    COVID-19 vaccines were unevenly distributed across the world, with fewer supplies in the Global South. The geopolitical powers who developed the vaccines started engaging in vaccine diplomacy, competing to donate or export their vaccines to other countries. A perspective neglected in this landscape is of those living in countries targeted by the vaccine diplomacy. This study conducted a survey experiment in Zimbabwe to examine the influence of vaccine origins on vaccination intention. The results suggest that vaccine country origins and country image interacted to influence vaccination intention toward American and Chinese vaccines. We also found that there was an interaction effect between vaccine country origins and partisanship in relation to Chinese vaccines. The findings suggest that the utility of vaccine diplomacy as a soft power strategy was affected by the heterogeneous country image fostered through international and local politics.
• Liu, Rigao, Haruka Nagao, and John James Kennedy. “The Digital Side to Mental Health: Uncovering the Relationship Between Screen-Based Entertainment and Mental Well-being Among Rural Elders in China.”Social Indicators Research (2025): 1-19.
  • Keywords: Aging, Digital use, Mental health, Screen time, Older rural residents, China
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    The aging population in China presents challenges to public health. The massive rural to urban migration over the last decade has left millions of older rural residents behind. Limited communication with their family and friends is leaving many distressed with feelings of loneliness. Consequences can be severe with a greater risk of depression. Moreover, for many older rural adults, depression goes undiagnosed because it is difficult for rural public health officials to identify depressive conditions within village households. The literature finds that the lack of communication with family members and social activities are significant factors in mental health of older individuals. However, few studies examine the relationship between screen time and the mental health of older adults. The objective of this study is to examine the relationship between TV/video consumption and mental health among older rural residents. Using the 2016 and 2018 China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) data, this study conducts longitudinal fixed-effects regression analyses. The results show that screen time (watching TV, movies or video programs) and depression scores have a U-shape curvilinear relationship. Moderate levels of TV/video viewing are correlated with lower depression scores. No access to TV/video entertainment is associated with higher depression scores. An implication of this study may inform village doctors and rural public health officials to identify correlates with depression, and village officials can target resources from town and county public health agencies where it is needed.
• Nagao, Haruka, William Hatungimana, Rigao Liu, and John James Kennedy.“A Party with China: Political Party Affiliation and Perceptions of China in African Countries.”, Journal of Modern African Studies 62, no.2 (2024): 175-199.
  • Keywords: Africa, China, public opinion, political party, party affiliation
  • Show Abstract

    Most attention on Africa-China relations has centered on China's economic activities. What remains unclear is the role of partisanship in shaping public perceptions of China in African countries. Since the Chinese government builds a favorable relationship with an incumbent party, incumbent party supporters tend to have positive views toward China whereas opposition party supporters perceive China more critically. This study conducts multilevel mixed-effects regression analyses of public opinion across 33 African countries, and finds that opposition party supporters are indeed more critical of China. While opposition parties are motivated by their office-seeking interests, they also hold an incumbent party accountable. This study sheds light on the agency of political parties and their supporters in African countries and the mode (instead of volume) of China's bilateral engagement.
• Liu, Rigao, Haruka Nagao, William Hatungimana, Jiakun Jack Zhang, and John James Kennedy. “The politics of flu vaccines: international collaboration and political partisanship.”Japanese Journal of Political Science 25, no. 2 (2024): 61-74.
  • Keywords: international collaboration, partisanship, US-China relationship, vaccine hesitancy, vaccine origin
  • Show Abstract

    While vaccine hesitancy has become a salient issue, few studies have examined the influence of international collaboration and vaccine developments on people's attitudes towards vaccines. The international collaboration especially with China has been an integral part of the field of influenza. In recent years, attitudes towards vaccines and China are both heavily politicized in the USA with a deepening partisan divide. Republicans are more likely than Democrats to be vaccine hesitant, and they are also more likely to view China negatively. At the same time, the USA has economic, security, and medical collaboration with Japan and most Americans display a very positive view of the country. Thus, does a more international collaboration or more country-specific vaccine development have an influence on US vaccine hesitancy? This study conducts a survey-embedded question-wording experiment to assess the roles of US-China and US-Japan collaboration and partisanship in people's willingness to get the flu vaccine. Despite the previously successful and effective US-China collaboration, this study finds that respondents especially Republicans are much less likely to receive a US-China flu vaccine than a US-Japan or USA alone. Interestingly, both Democrats and Republicans are as willing to receive a US-Japan vaccine as USA alone. These results point to critical roles of partisanship and international relations.
• Liu, Rigao, Haruka Nagao, and William Hatungimana. “Economic performance and good governance: Examining the role of economic well-being in local governance evaluation in China.” Journal of Chinese Governance 9, no. 2 (2024): 153-172.
  • Keywords: economic well-being, local governance, China
  • Show Abstract

    Citizens' satisfaction with governance is a critical political issue in China. How do citizens evaluate the effort to improve governance quality by the Chinese government? Are citizens satisfied with the governance at the local level? Does citizens’ economic well-being affect their evaluation of local governance, and if so, how? Drawing data from the Chinese Household Income Project (CHIP) 2018 survey, this study attempts to provide some insights to these questions by investigating whether citizens’ economic well-being shapes their evaluations of local governance. We find that respondents with a stronger sense of subjective economic well-being are more likely to be satisfied with local governance. However, objective economic well-being has a slightly negative impact on local governance satisfaction. Chinese citizens generally express a high level of satisfaction with local governance. Therefore, perceived economic well-being influences local government favorability more than the representation of economic well-being in material wealth. The findings point to a complex relationship between economic well-being and evaluation of governance quality.
• Youn, Leeann H., Haruka Nagao, William Hatungimana, and Rigao Liu. “Where do social media and education meet? A closer look at understanding of democracy.” Democratization 31, no. 1 (2024): 157-184.
  • Keywords: understanding of democracy, social media, higher education, regime type, public opinion
  • Show Abstract

    Social media presents a contradictory relationship with democracy. Once, it was regarded as a tool for democracy, providing alternative sources of information and coordinating social movements for democratization. Later it also became a tool for authoritarian regimes to control information and spread propaganda to stay in power. This mixed perception suggests that both democratic and authoritarian forces can use social media to influence public opinion. This presents a puzzle to the relationship between social media use and democratic understanding. Does social media promote or erode understanding of democracy? This study argues that the effect of social media use on understanding of democracy depends on higher education. The relationship also differs between democracies and non-democracies. Using the newest wave of the World Values Survey (wave 7, 2017–2020), this study analyses the influence of social media use on understanding of democracy in non-democracies and democracies. The findings suggest that social media use positively affects understanding of democracy in democratic countries. However, the democratic effect of social media is nullified in non-democracy unless it interacts with higher education. The findings offer implications for the relationship between social media, higher education, and understanding of democracy.
• Liu, Rigao, Jiakun Jack Zhang, and Samantha A. Vortherms. “In the middle: American multinationals in China and trade war politics.”Business and Politics 24, no. 4 (2022): 348-376.
  • Keywords: China, trade war, multinational corporations, foreign direct investment, political risk
  • Show Abstract

    Which factors make some American multinational corporations (MNCs) take political action in response to the US-China Trade War and cause others to stay on the sidelines? We identify China-based subsidiaries of US firms to identify firms' political actions in response to the trade war. We combine data on firms' tariff exposure, economic actions in China, and political actions in the United States during the trade war. Together these data highlight the divergent strategies with which firms engage. Even though more than 63 percent of MNCs in our sample were adversely impacted by tariffs, only 22 percent voice opposition and 7 percent exit in response to the trade war. Our analysis reveals that US MNCs in China differ in their business models, ownership structure, experience in China, and size of capital investments. These firm-level factors determine the degree to which US MNCs are embedded in China. This in turn shapes how firms perceive political risk and choose from the menu of options to deal with the trade war. Size and age increase voice while joint-venture status decreases it.

Book Chapters and Editor-reviewed Articles

• Liu, Rigao, and John James Kennedy. “China’s Second Generation of Left Behind Children.” The China Story, 2024.

• Kennedy, John James, and Rigao Liu. “One County, Many Paradigms: Diversity in China Political Studies.” In Paradigm Shifts in Chinese Studies, pp. 173-199. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2022.

Working Papers

• Chu, Hyoungrohk, Rigao Liu, Leeann Youn, William Hatungimana, and Haruka Nagao. “Election Delay: Determinants of Postponing Elections and Public Support During a Crisis Time in Africa.”

• Nagao, Haruka, William Hatungimana, Rigao Liu, and John James Kennedy. “Perception of China in Zimbabwe: Influence of Partisanship and Media Exposure.”

• Hatungimana, William, Haruka Nagao, Rigao Liu, and Leeann Youn. “The Price of Ethnic Exclusion in Times of Public Health Crisis.”

• Hatungimana, William, Haruka Nagao, Takudzwa Chawota, and Rigao Liu. “Social Identity and Soft Power: The Perception of Chinese Immigrants in Zimbabwe.”

• Youn, Leeann, Haruka Nagao, William Hatungimana, and Rigao Liu. “Political Representation and Environmental Performance.”